← Course Hub← 课程主页 ← All Units← 返回单元列表
H I G H  S C H O O L  C H E M I S T R Y
Solutions详解

The Mole and Stoichiometry · Solutions摩尔与化学计量 · 详解

Companion to the Practice Set · Mark-by-mark walkthroughs · AP-Feeder / ON / BC / AB styles练习题配套答案 · 逐分讲解 · AP 衔接 / 安 / 卑 / 阿省考风格

EASY MEDIUM HARD 🇺🇸 US 🇨🇦 ON 🇨🇦 BC 🇨🇦 AB AP-style MCQAP 风格选择题 AP-feeder FRQAP 衔接简答题 ON Provincial-style安大略省考风格 BC Provincial-style卑诗省考风格 AB Diploma-style阿尔伯塔毕业考风格 Honors荣誉级


PART I  ·  SHORT RESPONSE · SOLUTIONS第一部分  ·  短答题 · 详解AP MCQ + ON/BC short answer · 24 marksAP 选择题 + 安/卑省考短答 · 共 24 分

Section A · Worked SolutionsA 部分 · 详细解答

Q1EASY 🇺🇸 US AP-style MCQAP 风格选择题 §1 Mole and Avogadro's number摩尔与阿伏伽德罗常数 [3 marks][3 分]

How many molecules are in $2.00\ \mathrm{mol}$ of $\mathrm{CO_2}$?$2.00\ \mathrm{mol}$ $\mathrm{CO_2}$ 中含有多少个分子?

Answer:答案:  (B)  $1.204 \times 10^{24}$

Multiply moles by Avogadro's number用摩尔数乘以阿伏伽德罗常数 M1·A1·A1

Number of molecules $= n \times N_A$:分子数 $= n \times N_A$: $$ N \;=\; 2.00\ \mathrm{mol} \times 6.022\times10^{23}\ \mathrm{mol^{-1}} \;=\; 1.204\times10^{24}\ \text{molecules.} $$
Why the distractors fail.干扰项分析。
(A) $6.022\times10^{23}$: uses $n = 1$ mol instead of 2 mol.误用 $n = 1$ mol 而非 2 mol。
(C) $3.011\times10^{23}$: divides $N_A$ by 2 instead of multiplying.将 $N_A$ 除以 2 而非相乘。
(D) $2.409\times10^{24}$: multiplies by 3 (the number of atoms per molecule) rather than by the number of moles.乘以每分子的原子数 3,而非摩尔数。
$N = n \times N_A$ counts particles, not atoms.$N = n \times N_A$ 计数的是粒子,而非原子。 Avogadro's number converts moles of any discrete particle (molecule, formula unit, ion) to a count of that particle. Here the particle is the $\mathrm{CO_2}$ molecule. The number of atoms would be $3\times1.204\times10^{24}$ (one C and two O per molecule), but the question asks for molecules. Always identify what the "particle" is before applying $N = nN_A$.阿伏伽德罗常数将任何离散粒子(分子、化学式单元、离子)的摩尔数转换为该粒子的数目。本题粒子是 $\mathrm{CO_2}$ 分子。原子总数应为 $3\times1.204\times10^{24}$(每个分子含 1 个 C 和 2 个 O),但题目问的是分子数。使用 $N = nN_A$ 前,务必先确认"粒子"是什么。
Q2EASY 🇺🇸 US AP-style MCQAP 风格选择题 §2 Molar mass and mole-mass conversion摩尔质量与摩尔-质量换算 [3 marks][3 分]

How many moles are in $36.0\ \mathrm{g}$ of $\mathrm{H_2O}$ ($M = 18.02\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}$)?$36.0\ \mathrm{g}$ $\mathrm{H_2O}$($M = 18.02\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}$)中含多少摩尔?

Answer:答案:  (B)  $2.00\ \mathrm{mol}$

Divide mass by molar mass用质量除以摩尔质量 M1·A1·A1

$$ n \;=\; \frac{m}{M} \;=\; \frac{36.0\ \mathrm{g}}{18.02\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}} \;=\; 1.998\ \mathrm{mol} \;\approx\; 2.00\ \mathrm{mol.} $$
Why the distractors fail.干扰项分析。
(A) $0.500\ \mathrm{mol}$: inverts the ratio: $M/m = 18.02/36.0$.将公式倒置,算成 $M/m$。
(C) $18.0\ \mathrm{mol}$: uses $M$ directly as the answer instead of dividing.将摩尔质量直接作为答案,未做除法。
(D) $648\ \mathrm{g}$: multiplies $m \times M$ instead of dividing; result has wrong units.将质量与摩尔质量相乘而非相除,且单位错误。
The mole-mass triangle: $n = m/M$, $m = nM$, $M = m/n$.摩尔-质量三角:$n = m/M$,$m = nM$,$M = m/n$。 Molar mass acts as a conversion factor between grams and moles. The SI unit check confirms the operation: $\mathrm{g} \div (\mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}) = \mathrm{mol}$. Keeping track of units prevents inverting the ratio. Note that $36.0\ \mathrm{g}$ is almost exactly $2 \times 18.02\ \mathrm{g}$, so the two-mole answer is easy to verify by mental arithmetic.摩尔质量是克与摩尔之间的换算因子。单位检验可确认运算方向:$\mathrm{g} \div (\mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}) = \mathrm{mol}$。随时跟踪单位可避免公式倒置。注意 $36.0\ \mathrm{g} \approx 2 \times 18.02\ \mathrm{g}$,故 2 mol 的答案可用心算快速验证。
Q3EASY 🇨🇦 ON ON Provincial-style安大略省考风格 §2 Mole-mass conversion摩尔-质量换算 [4 marks][4 分]

NaCl, $M = 58.44\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}$. (a) Mass of $0.250\ \mathrm{mol}$. (b) Number of Na$^+$ ions. (c) Assumption in (b).NaCl,$M = 58.44\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}$。(a) $0.250\ \mathrm{mol}$ 的质量。(b) Na$^+$ 离子数目。(c) (b) 中的假设。

Answer:答案:  (a) $14.6\ \mathrm{g}$  ·  (b) $1.506\times10^{23}$  ·  (c) complete dissociation / one Na$^+$ per formula unit完全解离 / 每个化学式单元提供一个 Na$^+$

(a) Mass of $0.250\ \mathrm{mol}$ NaCl$0.250\ \mathrm{mol}$ NaCl 的质量 M1·A1

$$ m \;=\; nM \;=\; 0.250\ \mathrm{mol} \times 58.44\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}} \;=\; 14.61\ \mathrm{g} \;\approx\; 14.6\ \mathrm{g.} $$

(b) Number of Na$^+$ ionsNa$^+$ 离子的数目 A1

Each formula unit of NaCl contains one Na$^+$. So the number of Na$^+$ equals the number of formula units:每个 NaCl 化学式单元含一个 Na$^+$,故 Na$^+$ 数等于化学式单元数: $$ N_{\mathrm{Na^+}} \;=\; 0.250\ \mathrm{mol} \times 6.022\times10^{23}\ \mathrm{mol^{-1}} \;=\; 1.506\times10^{23}. $$

(c) Assumption假设 A1

We assume that NaCl dissociates completely into Na$^+$ and Cl$^-$ ions (i.e., no ion pairing), so that every formula unit contributes exactly one Na$^+$.假设 NaCl 完全解离为 Na$^+$ 和 Cl$^-$ 离子(即无离子对),从而每个化学式单元恰好贡献一个 Na$^+$。
Ionic compounds contribute ions, not molecules.离子化合物提供的是离子,而非分子。 NaCl does not exist as discrete molecules in solution; it dissociates. The ratio of Na$^+$ to NaCl formula units is exactly 1:1, so $N_{\mathrm{Na^+}} = n_{\mathrm{NaCl}} \times N_A$. The ratio for Cl$^-$ is also 1:1. For a compound like $\mathrm{CaCl_2}$, you would get 2 Cl$^-$ per formula unit. Always read the subscript on the ion of interest. The assumption of complete dissociation breaks down in concentrated solutions (ion pairing), but at the dilute concentrations typical of SCH3U problems it is valid.NaCl 在溶液中不以离散分子形式存在,而是解离。Na$^+$ 与 NaCl 化学式单元之比恰好为 1:1,故 $N_{\mathrm{Na^+}} = n_{\mathrm{NaCl}} \times N_A$。Cl$^-$ 的比例也是 1:1。对于 $\mathrm{CaCl_2}$,每个化学式单元会给出 2 个 Cl$^-$。务必读清目标离子的下标。完全解离假设在浓溶液(有离子对)中不再成立,但在 SCH3U 典型稀溶液浓度下是有效的。
Q4MEDIUM 🇺🇸 US AP-style MCQAP 风格选择题 §4 Balancing chemical equations配平化学方程式 [3 marks][3 分]

Correctly balanced equation for Al reacting with $\mathrm{O_2}$ to form $\mathrm{Al_2O_3}$?铝与 $\mathrm{O_2}$ 反应生成 $\mathrm{Al_2O_3}$ 的正确配平方程式?

Answer:答案:  (C)  $\mathrm{4\,Al + 3\,O_2 \to 2\,Al_2O_3}$

Atom count for each option逐项原子计数 M1·A1·A1

Option (C): Left side: 4 Al, $3\times2 = 6$ O. Right side: $2\times2 = 4$ Al, $2\times3 = 6$ O. Both atoms balance. Coefficients have no common factor, so the equation is in lowest terms.选项 (C):左边:4 Al,$3\times2 = 6$ O。右边:$2\times2 = 4$ Al,$2\times3 = 6$ O。两种原子均平衡。系数无公因数,方程式已化为最简。
Why the distractors fail.干扰项分析。
(A): 1 Al on left vs. 2 Al on right; 2 O on left vs. 3 O on right. Not balanced.左边 1 Al vs 右边 2 Al;左边 2 O vs 右边 3 O,未配平。
(B): 2 Al on left vs. 2 Al on right (ok), but 2 O on left vs. 3 O on right. Oxygen not balanced.Al 平衡(各 2 个),但左边 2 O vs 右边 3 O,氧未配平。
(D): 2 Al on left vs. 4 Al on right; oxygen has 6 on each side. Aluminium not balanced.左边 2 Al vs 右边 4 Al;氧各 6 个平衡,但铝未配平。
Balance by inspection: start with the element that appears in the fewest compounds.目视配平:从出现化合物最少的元素开始。 $\mathrm{Al_2O_3}$ contains both Al and O, while Al and $\mathrm{O_2}$ are pure elements. A systematic approach: set $\mathrm{Al_2O_3}$ coefficient to 2 (giving 4 Al and 6 O on right). Then place 4 before Al (left) and $6/2 = 3$ before $\mathrm{O_2}$ (left). The 4:3:2 ratio in coefficients is a classic result and is worth memorising for AP multiple-choice speed.$\mathrm{Al_2O_3}$ 同时含 Al 和 O,而 Al 和 $\mathrm{O_2}$ 是纯元素。系统方法:将 $\mathrm{Al_2O_3}$ 系数设为 2(右边 4 Al、6 O),然后左边 Al 前写 4,$\mathrm{O_2}$ 前写 $6/2 = 3$。系数比 4:3:2 是经典结果,建议记忆以加快 AP 选择题作答速度。
Q5MEDIUM 🇨🇦 BC BC Provincial-style卑诗省考风格 §3 Percent composition质量分数 [11 marks][11 分]

$\mathrm{NH_4NO_3}$, $M = 80.04\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}$. (a) %N. (b) Mass of N in 500 g. (c) Empirical formula from 40.0% C, 6.67% H, 53.3% O. (d) Why two compounds can share an empirical formula.$\mathrm{NH_4NO_3}$,$M = 80.04\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}$。(a) 氮的质量分数。(b) 500 g 中 N 的质量。(c) 由 40.0% C、6.67% H、53.3% O 求实验式。(d) 两种化合物可有相同实验式的原因。

Answer:答案:  (a) $35.0\%$ N  ·  (b) $175\ \mathrm{g}$  ·  (c) $\mathrm{CH_2O}$  ·  (d) see below见下文

(a) Percent by mass of nitrogen氮的质量分数 M1·A1·A1

$\mathrm{NH_4NO_3}$ contains 2 N atoms. Mass of N per mole $= 2 \times 14.01 = 28.02\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}$.$\mathrm{NH_4NO_3}$ 含 2 个 N 原子,每摩尔 N 的质量 $= 2 \times 14.01 = 28.02\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}$。 $$ \%\mathrm{N} \;=\; \frac{28.02}{80.04} \times 100 \;=\; 35.01\% \;\approx\; 35.0\%. $$

(b) Mass of N in $500.\ \mathrm{g}$ of $\mathrm{NH_4NO_3}$$500.\ \mathrm{g}$ $\mathrm{NH_4NO_3}$ 中 N 的质量 M1·A1

$$ m_{\mathrm{N}} \;=\; 500.\ \mathrm{g} \times 0.3501 \;=\; 175.1\ \mathrm{g} \;\approx\; 175\ \mathrm{g.} $$

(c) Empirical formula from percent composition由质量分数求实验式 M1·A1·A1·A1

Assume $100.0\ \mathrm{g}$ sample:取 $100.0\ \mathrm{g}$ 样品: $$ n_{\mathrm{C}} = \frac{40.0}{12.01} = 3.331\ \mathrm{mol}, \quad n_{\mathrm{H}} = \frac{6.67}{1.008} = 6.617\ \mathrm{mol}, \quad n_{\mathrm{O}} = \frac{53.3}{16.00} = 3.331\ \mathrm{mol.} $$ Divide by the smallest value (3.331):除以最小值(3.331): $$ \mathrm{C}: \frac{3.331}{3.331} = 1.00, \quad \mathrm{H}: \frac{6.617}{3.331} = 1.987 \approx 2, \quad \mathrm{O}: \frac{3.331}{3.331} = 1.00. $$ Empirical formula: $\boxed{\mathrm{CH_2O}}$.实验式:$\boxed{\mathrm{CH_2O}}$。

(d) Why two compounds can share an empirical formula两种化合物可有相同实验式的原因 A1·A1

The empirical formula gives only the simplest integer ratio of atoms. The molecular formula is a whole-number multiple of the empirical formula. Two compounds with different $n$ values (e.g., $n = 1$ and $n = 2$) share the same empirical formula. For example, $\mathrm{CH_2O}$ (formaldehyde, $M = 30.03$) and $\mathrm{C_2H_4O_2}$ (acetic acid, $M = 60.06$) both have the empirical formula $\mathrm{CH_2O}$.实验式只给出原子的最简整数比。分子式是实验式的整数倍。两种化合物若 $n$ 值不同(如 $n=1$ 和 $n=2$),则共用同一实验式。例如,$\mathrm{CH_2O}$(甲醛,$M = 30.03$)和 $\mathrm{C_2H_4O_2}$(乙酸,$M = 60.06$)的实验式均为 $\mathrm{CH_2O}$。
Empirical formula = simplest ratio; molecular formula = actual count.实验式 = 最简比;分子式 = 实际数目。 The percent composition route (mass to moles, then divide by smallest) always yields the empirical formula. To upgrade to a molecular formula you need an independent measurement of molar mass (e.g., mass spectrometry, osmometry). The key test: if the ratio after dividing is not within 0.05 of a whole number, multiply all by 2, 3, etc. Here the H ratio (1.987) rounds to 2 cleanly, so no multiplication is needed.质量分数法(质量转摩尔数,再除以最小值)始终给出实验式。要升级为分子式,需要独立测定摩尔质量(如质谱法、渗透压法)。关键检验:若除后比值与整数的偏差超过 0.05,则需将所有比值乘以 2、3 等整数。本题 H 的比值(1.987)可整洁地四舍五入为 2,无需乘以额外系数。
PART II  ·  EXTENDED RESPONSE · SOLUTIONS第二部分  ·  简答题 · 详解AP-feeder FRQ + honors · 33 marksAP 衔接简答题 + 荣誉级 · 共 33 分

Section B · Worked SolutionsB 部分 · 详细解答

Q6MEDIUM 🇺🇸 US AP-feeder FRQAP 衔接简答题 §5 Mole-ratio stoichiometry摩尔比化学计量 [8 marks][8 分]

Haber process: $\mathrm{N_2(g) + 3\,H_2(g) \to 2\,NH_3(g)}$. $5.40\ \mathrm{g}$ $\mathrm{H_2}$ with excess $\mathrm{N_2}$.哈伯法:$\mathrm{N_2(g) + 3\,H_2(g) \to 2\,NH_3(g)}$。$5.40\ \mathrm{g}$ $\mathrm{H_2}$ 与过量 $\mathrm{N_2}$ 反应。

Answer:答案:  (a) $3:2$  ·  (b) $2.679\ \mathrm{mol}$  ·  (c) $30.4\ \mathrm{g}\ \mathrm{NH_3}$  ·  (d) $25.0\ \mathrm{g}\ \mathrm{N_2}$

(a) Mole ratio $\mathrm{H_2}:\mathrm{NH_3}$$\mathrm{H_2}:\mathrm{NH_3}$ 摩尔比 A1

From the balanced equation the coefficients are 3 for $\mathrm{H_2}$ and 2 for $\mathrm{NH_3}$, so the mole ratio is $\mathrm{H_2}:\mathrm{NH_3} = 3:2$.由配平方程式,$\mathrm{H_2}$ 系数为 3,$\mathrm{NH_3}$ 系数为 2,故摩尔比为 $\mathrm{H_2}:\mathrm{NH_3} = 3:2$。

(b) Moles of $\mathrm{H_2}$ in $5.40\ \mathrm{g}$$5.40\ \mathrm{g}$ $\mathrm{H_2}$ 中的摩尔数 M1·A1

$$ n_{\mathrm{H_2}} \;=\; \frac{5.40\ \mathrm{g}}{2.016\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}} \;=\; 2.679\ \mathrm{mol.} $$

(c) Mass of $\mathrm{NH_3}$ produced生成 $\mathrm{NH_3}$ 的质量 M1·A1·A1

Using the $3:2$ mole ratio:利用 $3:2$ 摩尔比: $$ n_{\mathrm{NH_3}} \;=\; 2.679\ \mathrm{mol} \times \frac{2}{3} \;=\; 1.786\ \mathrm{mol.} $$ $$ m_{\mathrm{NH_3}} \;=\; 1.786\ \mathrm{mol} \times 17.03\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}} \;=\; 30.41\ \mathrm{g} \;\approx\; 30.4\ \mathrm{g.} $$

(d) Mass of $\mathrm{N_2}$ consumed消耗的 $\mathrm{N_2}$ 质量 M1·A1

Mole ratio $\mathrm{H_2}:\mathrm{N_2} = 3:1$:摩尔比 $\mathrm{H_2}:\mathrm{N_2} = 3:1$: $$ n_{\mathrm{N_2}} \;=\; 2.679 \times \frac{1}{3} \;=\; 0.8929\ \mathrm{mol.} $$ $$ m_{\mathrm{N_2}} \;=\; 0.8929\ \mathrm{mol} \times 28.02\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}} \;=\; 25.02\ \mathrm{g} \;\approx\; 25.0\ \mathrm{g.} $$
The stoichiometry road map: mass $\to$ moles $\to$ mole ratio $\to$ moles $\to$ mass.化学计量路线图:质量 $\to$ 摩尔 $\to$ 摩尔比 $\to$ 摩尔 $\to$ 质量。 Every stoichiometry problem follows the same four steps: convert known mass to moles, apply the balanced-equation mole ratio, convert result to moles of target, then to mass. The mole ratio is the bridge; it comes directly from the balanced equation's coefficients. A quick check: masses should conserve. Here $5.40\ \mathrm{g}\ \mathrm{H_2} + 25.0\ \mathrm{g}\ \mathrm{N_2} = 30.4\ \mathrm{g} \approx m(\mathrm{NH_3})$, confirming conservation of mass within rounding.所有化学计量题遵循相同的四步:将已知质量转为摩尔数、应用配平方程式摩尔比、将结果转为目标摩尔数,再转为质量。摩尔比是桥梁,直接来自配平方程式的系数。快速检验:质量应守恒。此处 $5.40\ \mathrm{g}\ \mathrm{H_2} + 25.0\ \mathrm{g}\ \mathrm{N_2} = 30.4\ \mathrm{g} \approx m(\mathrm{NH_3})$,确认质量守恒(舍入范围内)。
Q7MEDIUM 🇨🇦 ON ON Provincial-style安大略省考风格 §3 Empirical and molecular formula实验式与分子式 [8 marks][8 分]

Compound: 40.0% C, 6.67% H, 53.3% O; molar mass $\approx 60.1\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}$.化合物:40.0% C、6.67% H、53.3% O;摩尔质量约 $60.1\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}$。

Answer:答案:  (a) $n_{\mathrm{C}}=3.331,\ n_{\mathrm{H}}=6.617,\ n_{\mathrm{O}}=3.331\ \mathrm{mol}$  ·  (b) $\mathrm{CH_2O}$  ·  (c) $\mathrm{C_2H_4O_2}$  ·  (d) acetic acid乙酸

(a) Convert element masses to moles (100.0 g sample)将元素质量转换为摩尔数(100.0 g 样品) M1·A1·A1

$$ n_{\mathrm{C}} = \frac{40.0}{12.01} = 3.331\ \mathrm{mol}, \quad n_{\mathrm{H}} = \frac{6.67}{1.008} = 6.617\ \mathrm{mol}, \quad n_{\mathrm{O}} = \frac{53.3}{16.00} = 3.331\ \mathrm{mol.} $$

(b) Empirical formula实验式 M1·A1

Divide each by the smallest (3.331): C = 1.00, H = 1.987 $\approx$ 2, O = 1.00. Empirical formula: $\mathrm{CH_2O}$ (EF molar mass $= 12.01 + 2.016 + 16.00 = 30.03\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}$).各除以最小值(3.331):C = 1.00,H = 1.987 $\approx$ 2,O = 1.00。实验式:$\mathrm{CH_2O}$(实验式摩尔质量 $= 12.01 + 2.016 + 16.00 = 30.03\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}$)。

(c) Molecular formula分子式 M1·A1

$$ n \;=\; \frac{M_{\text{molecular}}}{M_{\text{EF}}} \;=\; \frac{60.1}{30.03} \;=\; 2.00 \;\approx\; 2. $$ Molecular formula $= 2 \times \mathrm{CH_2O} = \mathrm{C_2H_4O_2}$.分子式 $= 2 \times \mathrm{CH_2O} = \mathrm{C_2H_4O_2}$。

(d) One possible compound一种可能的化合物 A1

Acetic acid (ethanoic acid, $\mathrm{CH_3COOH}$) has the molecular formula $\mathrm{C_2H_4O_2}$ and $M = 60.05\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}$, consistent with the data. (Glycolaldehyde is another valid answer.)乙酸($\mathrm{CH_3COOH}$)的分子式为 $\mathrm{C_2H_4O_2}$,$M = 60.05\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}$,与数据吻合。(乙醇醛也是有效答案。)
The multiplier $n = M_{\text{mol}} / M_{\text{EF}}$ must be a whole number within experimental error.倍数 $n = M_{\text{mol}} / M_{\text{EF}}$ 在实验误差范围内必须为整数。 If $n$ comes out as 1.5 or 2.5, recheck the empirical formula: you may have rounded the mole ratios too aggressively. A ratio of 1.5 suggests multiplying everything by 2, giving a tripled ratio. Here $n = 2.00$ is clean, confirming $\mathrm{C_2H_4O_2}$. At the ON provincial level, identifying a chemically real compound (rather than an abstract formula) earns the final mark, so name the compound.若 $n$ 得出 1.5 或 2.5,需重新检查实验式,可能对摩尔比四舍五入过于激进。比值为 1.5 时提示将所有值乘以 2,得到整数比。本题 $n = 2.00$ 整洁,确认分子式为 $\mathrm{C_2H_4O_2}$。安大略省考最后一分要求写出真实的化学物质(而非抽象公式),务必给出化合物名称。
Q8HARD 🇨🇦 AB AB Diploma-style阿尔伯塔毕业考风格 §6 Limiting and excess reactants限量反应物与过量反应物 [9 marks][9 分]

$\mathrm{2\,Al + 6\,HCl \to 2\,AlCl_3 + 3\,H_2}$. $5.40\ \mathrm{g}$ Al and $14.6\ \mathrm{g}$ HCl.$\mathrm{2\,Al + 6\,HCl \to 2\,AlCl_3 + 3\,H_2}$。$5.40\ \mathrm{g}$ Al 与 $14.6\ \mathrm{g}$ HCl。

Answer:答案:  (a) $n_{\mathrm{Al}}=0.2002\ \mathrm{mol},\ n_{\mathrm{HCl}}=0.4004\ \mathrm{mol}$  ·  (b) HCl is limitingHCl 为限量反应物  ·  (c) $0.404\ \mathrm{g}\ \mathrm{H_2}$  ·  (d) $1.80\ \mathrm{g}$ Al

(a) Moles of each reactant各反应物的摩尔数 A1·A1

$$ n_{\mathrm{Al}} = \frac{5.40}{26.98} = 0.2002\ \mathrm{mol,} \qquad n_{\mathrm{HCl}} = \frac{14.6}{36.46} = 0.4004\ \mathrm{mol.} $$

(b) Identify the limiting reactant确定限量反应物 M1·A1·A1

The stoichiometric ratio requires $n_{\mathrm{HCl}} / n_{\mathrm{Al}} = 6/2 = 3.00$. Check the actual ratio:理论摩尔比要求 $n_{\mathrm{HCl}} / n_{\mathrm{Al}} = 6/2 = 3.00$。检验实际比值: $$ \frac{n_{\mathrm{HCl}}}{n_{\mathrm{Al}}} \;=\; \frac{0.4004}{0.2002} \;=\; 2.00 \;<\; 3.00. $$ The actual ratio (2.00) is less than the stoichiometric requirement (3.00), so HCl is the limiting reactant and Al is in excess.实际比值(2.00)小于化学计量要求(3.00),故 HCl 为限量反应物,Al 过量。

(c) Theoretical mass of $\mathrm{H_2}$ produced生成 $\mathrm{H_2}$ 的理论质量 M1·A1

From the limiting reagent (HCl), ratio $\mathrm{HCl}:\mathrm{H_2} = 6:3 = 2:1$:以限量试剂(HCl)出发,摩尔比 $\mathrm{HCl}:\mathrm{H_2} = 6:3 = 2:1$: $$ n_{\mathrm{H_2}} \;=\; 0.4004 \times \frac{3}{6} \;=\; 0.2002\ \mathrm{mol.} $$ $$ m_{\mathrm{H_2}} \;=\; 0.2002 \times 2.016 \;=\; 0.4036\ \mathrm{g} \;\approx\; 0.404\ \mathrm{g.} $$

(d) Mass of excess Al remaining剩余过量 Al 的质量 M1·A1

Al consumed by 0.4004 mol HCl (ratio Al:HCl = 2:6 = 1:3):0.4004 mol HCl 消耗的 Al(比 Al:HCl = 2:6 = 1:3): $$ n_{\mathrm{Al,\,consumed}} \;=\; 0.4004 \times \frac{2}{6} \;=\; 0.1335\ \mathrm{mol.} $$ $$ n_{\mathrm{Al,\,remaining}} \;=\; 0.2002 - 0.1335 \;=\; 0.0667\ \mathrm{mol.} $$ $$ m_{\mathrm{Al,\,remaining}} \;=\; 0.0667 \times 26.98 \;=\; 1.80\ \mathrm{g.} $$
Test for limiting reagent by comparing actual ratio to stoichiometric ratio.通过比较实际比值与化学计量比值来判断限量试剂。 The cleanest method is to divide the actual mole ratio of reactants by the stoichiometric ratio. Whichever reactant is deficient relative to what the equation demands is the limiting reagent. An equivalent method: assume each reactant is limiting in turn, compute the moles of product, and take the smaller result. Both methods are correct; the ratio comparison is faster. Always base subsequent product calculations on the limiting reagent, never the excess.最简洁的方法是将反应物实际摩尔比与化学计量比相比较,相对于方程式需求而言不足的那种反应物即为限量试剂。等效方法:分别假设每种反应物为限量试剂,计算产物摩尔数,取较小结果。两种方法均正确,比值比较法更快。后续产物计算务必以限量试剂为基础,而非过量试剂。
Q9HARDHonors荣誉级 🇺🇸 US AP-feeder FRQAP 衔接简答题 §3 Molecular formula from empirical formula and molar mass由实验式和摩尔质量推导分子式 [8 marks][8 分]

Combustion of $0.460\ \mathrm{g}$ unknown organic compound gives $0.879\ \mathrm{g}$ $\mathrm{CO_2}$ and $0.540\ \mathrm{g}$ $\mathrm{H_2O}$. Molar mass $= 46.1\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}$.燃烧 $0.460\ \mathrm{g}$ 未知有机化合物,得到 $0.879\ \mathrm{g}$ $\mathrm{CO_2}$ 和 $0.540\ \mathrm{g}$ $\mathrm{H_2O}$。摩尔质量 $= 46.1\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}$。

Answer:答案:  (a) $n_{\mathrm{C}}=0.01998\ \mathrm{mol},\ n_{\mathrm{H}}=0.05994\ \mathrm{mol}$  ·  (b) $m_{\mathrm{O}}=0.1596\ \mathrm{g},\ n_{\mathrm{O}}=0.009975\ \mathrm{mol}$  ·  (c) EF $=\mathrm{C_2H_6O}$, MF $=\mathrm{C_2H_6O}$  ·  (d) ethanol乙醇

(a) Moles of C and H from combustion products由燃烧产物计算 C 和 H 的摩尔数 M1·A1

All C in the sample ends up in $\mathrm{CO_2}$; all H ends up in $\mathrm{H_2O}$:样品中所有 C 最终转入 $\mathrm{CO_2}$,所有 H 最终转入 $\mathrm{H_2O}$: $$ n_{\mathrm{C}} \;=\; n_{\mathrm{CO_2}} \;=\; \frac{0.879}{44.01} \;=\; 0.01998\ \mathrm{mol.} $$ $$ n_{\mathrm{H_2O}} \;=\; \frac{0.540}{18.02} \;=\; 0.02997\ \mathrm{mol} \;\Longrightarrow\; n_{\mathrm{H}} \;=\; 2 \times 0.02997 \;=\; 0.05994\ \mathrm{mol.} $$

(b) Mass and moles of oxygen氧的质量和摩尔数 M1·A1

$$ m_{\mathrm{C}} \;=\; 0.01998 \times 12.01 \;=\; 0.2400\ \mathrm{g.} \qquad m_{\mathrm{H}} \;=\; 0.05994 \times 1.008 \;=\; 0.06042\ \mathrm{g.} $$ $$ m_{\mathrm{O}} \;=\; 0.460 - 0.2400 - 0.06042 \;=\; 0.1596\ \mathrm{g.} $$ $$ n_{\mathrm{O}} \;=\; \frac{0.1596}{16.00} \;=\; 0.009975\ \mathrm{mol.} $$

(c) Empirical formula and molecular formula实验式与分子式 M1·A1·A1

Divide each by the smallest ($n_{\mathrm{O}} = 0.009975$):各除以最小值($n_{\mathrm{O}} = 0.009975$): $$ \mathrm{C}:\frac{0.01998}{0.009975} = 2.003 \approx 2, \quad \mathrm{H}:\frac{0.05994}{0.009975} = 6.009 \approx 6, \quad \mathrm{O}:\frac{0.009975}{0.009975} = 1.00. $$ Empirical formula $= \mathrm{C_2H_6O}$. EF molar mass $= 2(12.01) + 6(1.008) + 16.00 = 46.07\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}$.实验式 $= \mathrm{C_2H_6O}$。实验式摩尔质量 $= 2(12.01) + 6(1.008) + 16.00 = 46.07\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}$。 $$ n \;=\; \frac{46.1}{46.07} \;=\; 1.00 \;\approx\; 1. $$ Molecular formula $= \mathrm{C_2H_6O}$.分子式 $= \mathrm{C_2H_6O}$。

(d) One consistent compound一种相符的化合物 A1

Ethanol ($\mathrm{C_2H_5OH}$) has the molecular formula $\mathrm{C_2H_6O}$ and $M = 46.07\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}$. (Dimethyl ether, $\mathrm{CH_3OCH_3}$, is also valid.)乙醇($\mathrm{C_2H_5OH}$)的分子式为 $\mathrm{C_2H_6O}$,$M = 46.07\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}$。(二甲醚 $\mathrm{CH_3OCH_3}$ 亦为有效答案。)
Combustion analysis: C comes from $\mathrm{CO_2}$, H from $\mathrm{H_2O}$, O by subtraction.燃烧分析:C 来自 $\mathrm{CO_2}$,H 来自 $\mathrm{H_2O}$,O 用差减法求得。 The subtraction step only works for compounds containing exclusively C, H, and O. If nitrogen or sulfur were present, additional traps (acidic gas absorbers) would be needed. The check here is that $m_{\mathrm{C}} + m_{\mathrm{H}} + m_{\mathrm{O}} = 0.2400 + 0.0604 + 0.1596 = 0.460\ \mathrm{g}$, exactly matching the sample mass, which confirms no other elements are present. This type of combustion-to-formula chain is a hallmark AP Chemistry FRQ.差减法只适用于仅含 C、H、O 的化合物。若含有氮或硫,还需额外的吸收装置。本题验证:$m_{\mathrm{C}} + m_{\mathrm{H}} + m_{\mathrm{O}} = 0.2400 + 0.0604 + 0.1596 = 0.460\ \mathrm{g}$,恰好等于样品质量,确认无其他元素。这类从燃烧到分子式的完整链条是 AP 化学简答题的标志性题型。
PART III  ·  MODELING / APPLIED · SOLUTIONS第三部分  ·  建模与应用 · 详解AB Diploma + Universal · 25 marks阿省毕业考 + 通用题型 · 共 25 分

Section C · Worked SolutionsC 部分 · 详细解答

Q10MEDIUM 🇨🇦 AB AB Diploma-style阿尔伯塔毕业考风格 §7 Percent yield产率 [8 marks][8 分]

$\mathrm{CaCO_3(s) \to CaO(s) + CO_2(g)}$. $25.0\ \mathrm{g}$ $\mathrm{CaCO_3}$ heated, $11.2\ \mathrm{g}$ CaO collected.$\mathrm{CaCO_3(s) \to CaO(s) + CO_2(g)}$。加热 $25.0\ \mathrm{g}$ $\mathrm{CaCO_3}$,收集到 $11.2\ \mathrm{g}$ CaO。

Answer:答案:  (a) $0.2498\ \mathrm{mol}$  ·  (b) $14.01\ \mathrm{g}$  ·  (c) $79.9\%$  ·  (d) see below见下文

(a) Moles of $\mathrm{CaCO_3}$$\mathrm{CaCO_3}$ 的摩尔数 A1

$$ n_{\mathrm{CaCO_3}} \;=\; \frac{25.0}{100.09} \;=\; 0.2498\ \mathrm{mol.} $$

(b) Theoretical yield of CaOCaO 的理论产量 M1·A1·A1

Mole ratio $\mathrm{CaCO_3}:\mathrm{CaO} = 1:1$, so $n_{\mathrm{CaO,\,theoretical}} = 0.2498\ \mathrm{mol}$:摩尔比 $\mathrm{CaCO_3}:\mathrm{CaO} = 1:1$,故理论 $n_{\mathrm{CaO}} = 0.2498\ \mathrm{mol}$: $$ m_{\mathrm{CaO,\,theoretical}} \;=\; 0.2498 \times 56.08 \;=\; 14.01\ \mathrm{g.} $$

(c) Percent yield产率 M1·A1

$$ \%\text{yield} \;=\; \frac{m_{\text{actual}}}{m_{\text{theoretical}}} \times 100 \;=\; \frac{11.2}{14.01} \times 100 \;=\; 79.9\%. $$

(d) Reason for yield below 100%产率低于 100% 的原因 A1·A1

Accept any one well-explained reason, for example: (i) the reaction did not go to completion because insufficient heat was applied, leaving some $\mathrm{CaCO_3}$ unreacted; (ii) some CaO product was lost during transfer to the collection vessel.以下任一充分解释的原因均可得分,例如:(i) 反应未完全进行,因为供热不足,导致部分 $\mathrm{CaCO_3}$ 未反应;(ii) 转移至收集容器时部分 CaO 产品损失。
Percent yield measures experimental efficiency; it can never exceed 100% in a real experiment.产率衡量实验效率;在真实实验中不可能超过 100%。 $\%\text{yield} = (m_{\text{actual}} / m_{\text{theoretical}}) \times 100$. The theoretical yield is calculated assuming: (1) the reaction goes to completion, (2) no product is lost, and (3) no side reactions occur. Any of these failures reduces the yield below 100%. A yield above 100% always indicates an experimental error (e.g., product is wet and water is counted as mass, or a calculation mistake). The AB diploma exam consistently awards two marks for part (d): one for naming the reason and one for explaining the mechanism.$\%\text{yield} = (m_{\text{actual}} / m_{\text{theoretical}}) \times 100$。理论产量的计算假设:(1) 反应完全进行,(2) 无产品损失,(3) 无副反应。以上任一条件不满足都会使产率低于 100%。产率超过 100% 始终表明存在实验误差(如产品含水导致质量偏大,或计算错误)。AB 毕业考对 (d) 小问通常给 2 分:1 分用于点出原因,1 分用于解释机制。
Q11MEDIUM 🇨🇦 BC BC Provincial-style卑诗省考风格 §5 + §6 + §7 Multi-step stoichiometry with limiting reagent and percent yield含限量试剂与产率的多步化学计量 [9 marks][9 分]

$\mathrm{Fe_2O_3 + 3\,CO \to 2\,Fe + 3\,CO_2}$. $160.0\ \mathrm{g}$ $\mathrm{Fe_2O_3}$, $84.0\ \mathrm{g}$ CO, actual yield $97.0\ \mathrm{g}$ Fe.$\mathrm{Fe_2O_3 + 3\,CO \to 2\,Fe + 3\,CO_2}$。$160.0\ \mathrm{g}$ $\mathrm{Fe_2O_3}$,$84.0\ \mathrm{g}$ CO,实际铁产量 $97.0\ \mathrm{g}$。

Answer:答案:  (a) $n_{\mathrm{Fe_2O_3}}=1.002\ \mathrm{mol},\ n_{\mathrm{CO}}=2.999\ \mathrm{mol}$  ·  (b) CO is limiting, $\mathrm{Fe_2O_3}$ in excessCO 为限量反应物,$\mathrm{Fe_2O_3}$ 过量  ·  (c) $111.7\ \mathrm{g}$  ·  (d) $86.8\%$

(a) Moles of each reactant各反应物的摩尔数 A1·A1

$$ n_{\mathrm{Fe_2O_3}} \;=\; \frac{160.0}{159.69} \;=\; 1.002\ \mathrm{mol,} \qquad n_{\mathrm{CO}} \;=\; \frac{84.0}{28.01} \;=\; 2.999\ \mathrm{mol.} $$

(b) Identify the limiting reactant确定限量反应物 M1·A1·A1

Stoichiometric ratio $\mathrm{CO}:\mathrm{Fe_2O_3} = 3:1$. CO needed to fully react with 1.002 mol $\mathrm{Fe_2O_3}$:化学计量比 $\mathrm{CO}:\mathrm{Fe_2O_3} = 3:1$。完全反应 1.002 mol $\mathrm{Fe_2O_3}$ 所需 CO: $$ n_{\mathrm{CO,\,required}} \;=\; 1.002 \times 3 \;=\; 3.006\ \mathrm{mol.} $$ Available CO $= 2.999\ \mathrm{mol} < 3.006\ \mathrm{mol}$ required. Therefore CO is the limiting reactant and $\mathrm{Fe_2O_3}$ is in excess.实际 CO $= 2.999\ \mathrm{mol} < 3.006\ \mathrm{mol}$ 所需。故 CO 为限量反应物,$\mathrm{Fe_2O_3}$ 过量。

(c) Theoretical yield of Fe铁的理论产量 M1·A1

Mole ratio $\mathrm{CO}:\mathrm{Fe} = 3:2$:摩尔比 $\mathrm{CO}:\mathrm{Fe} = 3:2$: $$ n_{\mathrm{Fe}} \;=\; 2.999 \times \frac{2}{3} \;=\; 1.999\ \mathrm{mol.} $$ $$ m_{\mathrm{Fe,\,theoretical}} \;=\; 1.999 \times 55.85 \;=\; 111.7\ \mathrm{g.} $$

(d) Percent yield of Fe铁的产率 M1·A1

$$ \%\text{yield} \;=\; \frac{97.0}{111.7} \times 100 \;=\; 86.84\% \;\approx\; 86.8\%. $$
Multi-step problems: handle limiting reagent first, then yield.多步题:先处理限量试剂,再计算产率。 The two most common errors on this type of question are: (1) using the wrong reactant as limiting (the one with less mass rather than the one that runs out first in moles), and (2) computing theoretical yield from the excess reactant. Note that $\mathrm{Fe_2O_3}$ has a larger mass (160.0 g) but is NOT the limiting reagent; only the mole ratio comparison reveals the true limiter. The percent yield here ($86.8\%$) is realistic for an industrial smelting process, where incomplete contact between solid and gas and high-temperature losses are common.此类题最常见的两个错误:(1) 将质量较少(而非摩尔数先耗尽)的反应物误判为限量试剂;(2) 用过量试剂计算理论产量。注意 $\mathrm{Fe_2O_3}$ 质量更大(160.0 g),但并非限量试剂;只有摩尔比比较才能揭示真正的限量试剂。此题产率(86.8%)对工业冶炼过程来说是合理的,因为固-气接触不完全及高温损耗十分常见。
Q12HARD 🇺🇸 US AP-feeder FRQAP 衔接简答题 §2 + §3 + §5 Full stoichiometry chain: combustion analysis to product mass完整化学计量链:从燃烧分析到产物质量 [8 marks][8 分]

$0.920\ \mathrm{g}$ ethanol ($\mathrm{C_2H_5OH}$, $M = 46.07\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}$) undergoes complete combustion: $\mathrm{C_2H_5OH + 3\,O_2 \to 2\,CO_2 + 3\,H_2O}$.$0.920\ \mathrm{g}$ 乙醇($\mathrm{C_2H_5OH}$,$M = 46.07\ \mathrm{g\,mol^{-1}}$)完全燃烧:$\mathrm{C_2H_5OH + 3\,O_2 \to 2\,CO_2 + 3\,H_2O}$。

Answer:答案:  (a) $0.01996\ \mathrm{mol}$  ·  (b) $1.76\ \mathrm{g}\ \mathrm{CO_2}$  ·  (c) $1.08\ \mathrm{g}\ \mathrm{H_2O}$  ·  (d) mass conserved质量守恒

(a) Moles of ethanol乙醇的摩尔数 A1

$$ n_{\mathrm{ethanol}} \;=\; \frac{0.920}{46.07} \;=\; 0.01996\ \mathrm{mol.} $$

(b) Mass of $\mathrm{CO_2}$ produced生成 $\mathrm{CO_2}$ 的质量 M1·A1·A1

Mole ratio ethanol:$\mathrm{CO_2} = 1:2$:摩尔比乙醇:$\mathrm{CO_2} = 1:2$: $$ n_{\mathrm{CO_2}} \;=\; 0.01996 \times 2 \;=\; 0.03992\ \mathrm{mol.} $$ $$ m_{\mathrm{CO_2}} \;=\; 0.03992 \times 44.01 \;=\; 1.757\ \mathrm{g} \;\approx\; 1.76\ \mathrm{g.} $$

(c) Mass of $\mathrm{H_2O}$ produced生成 $\mathrm{H_2O}$ 的质量 M1·A1

Mole ratio ethanol:$\mathrm{H_2O} = 1:3$:摩尔比乙醇:$\mathrm{H_2O} = 1:3$: $$ n_{\mathrm{H_2O}} \;=\; 0.01996 \times 3 \;=\; 0.05988\ \mathrm{mol.} $$ $$ m_{\mathrm{H_2O}} \;=\; 0.05988 \times 18.02 \;=\; 1.079\ \mathrm{g} \;\approx\; 1.08\ \mathrm{g.} $$

(d) Conservation of mass check质量守恒验证 M1·A1

Mass of $\mathrm{O_2}$ consumed: mole ratio ethanol:$\mathrm{O_2} = 1:3$:消耗 $\mathrm{O_2}$ 的质量:摩尔比乙醇:$\mathrm{O_2} = 1:3$: $$ n_{\mathrm{O_2}} \;=\; 0.01996 \times 3 \;=\; 0.05988\ \mathrm{mol,} \qquad m_{\mathrm{O_2}} \;=\; 0.05988 \times 32.00 \;=\; 1.916\ \mathrm{g.} $$ $$ \text{Total reactants: } 0.920 + 1.916 \;=\; 2.836\ \mathrm{g.} $$ $$ \text{Total products: } 1.757 + 1.079 \;=\; 2.836\ \mathrm{g.} \quad \checkmark $$ Mass is conserved to within rounding ($2.836\ \mathrm{g} = 2.836\ \mathrm{g}$), confirming the stoichiometric calculations are self-consistent.质量在舍入范围内守恒($2.836\ \mathrm{g} = 2.836\ \mathrm{g}$),确认化学计量计算内部一致。
Conservation of mass is the ultimate check for any stoichiometry calculation.质量守恒是所有化学计量计算的终极验证。 In a balanced chemical equation the total mass of reactants equals the total mass of products. If the sums differ by more than rounding error, there is an arithmetic mistake somewhere. This check is especially powerful in multi-step problems: if (b) or (c) has an error, the mass balance in (d) will not close. Notice that $\mathrm{O_2}$ must be included in the reactant mass even though it is not asked about directly. The AP exam awards full marks for (d) only if the comparison is explicit and the $\mathrm{O_2}$ mass is accounted for.在配平化学方程式中,反应物总质量等于产物总质量。若两者之差超过舍入误差,则某处存在计算错误。这一验证在多步题中尤为有力:若 (b) 或 (c) 有误,(d) 的质量守恒将无法成立。注意 $\mathrm{O_2}$ 即使未被直接问及,也必须计入反应物质量。AP 考试要求 (d) 的验证明确写出比较,且须将 $\mathrm{O_2}$ 质量纳入计算,才能获得满分。